Chillers

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. A vapor-compression water chiller comprises the 4 major components of the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle (compressor, evaporator, condenser, and some form of metering device). These machines can implement a variety of refrigerants. Adsorption chillers use municipal water as the refrigerant and benign silica gel as the desiccant. Absorption chillers utilize water as the refrigerant and rely on the strong affinity between the water and a lithium bromide solution to achieve a refrigeration effect. Most often, pure water is chilled, but this water may also contain a percentage of glycol and/or corrosion inhibitors; other fluids such as thin oils can be chilled as well. Contents [hide] 1 Use in air conditioning 2 Use in industry 3 Vapor-Compression Chiller Technology 4 How Adsorption Technology Works 5 How Absorption Technology Works 5. 1 Industrial chiller technology Industrial chiller selection 7 Refrigerants 8 See also 9 References 10 External links [edit] Use in air conditioning In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils, in air handling units, or other type of terminal devices which cool the air in its respective space(s), and then the chilled water is re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled again. These cooling coils transfer sensible heat and lat ent heat from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 to 1500 tons (180,000 to 18,000,000 BTU/h or 53 to 5,300 kW) in cooling capacity. Chilled water temperatures can range from 35 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit or 1. 5 to 7 degrees Celsius, depending upon application requirements. [1] [2] [edit] Use in industry In industrial application, chilled water or other liquid from the chiller is pumped through process or laboratory equipment. Industrial chillers are used for controlled cooling of products, mechanisms and factory machinery in a wide range of industries. They are often used in the plastic industry in injection and blow molding, metal working cutting oils, welding equipment, die-casting and machine tooling, chemical processing, pharmaceutical formulation, food and beverage processing, paper and cement processing, vacuum systems, X-ray diffraction, power supplies and power generation stations, analytical equipment, semiconductors, compressed air and gas cooling. They are also used to cool high-heat specialized items such as MRI machines and lasers, and in hospitals, hotels and campuses. The chillers for industrial applications can be centralized, where each chiller serves multiple cooling needs, or decentralized where each application or machine has its own chiller. Each approach has its advantages. It is also possible to have a combination of both central and decentral chillers, especially if the cooling requirements are the same for some applications or points of use, but not all. Decentral chillers are usually small in size (cooling capacity), usually from 0. 2 tons to 10 tons. Central chillers generally have capacities ranging from ten tons to hundreds or thousands of tons. Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) facilities. Water chillers can be either water cooled, air-cooled, or evaporatively cooled. Water-cooled chillers incorporate the use of cooling towers which improve the chillers' thermodynamic effectiveness as compared to air-cooled chillers. This is due to heat rejection at or near the air's wet-bulb temperature rather than the higher, sometimes much higher, dry-bulb temperature. Evaporatively cooled chillers offer efficiencies better than air cooled, but lower than water cooled. Water cooled chillers are typically intended for indoor installation and operation, and are cooled by a separate condenser water loop and connected to outdoor cooling towers to expel heat to the atmosphere. Air Cooled and Evaporatively Cooled chillers are intended for outdoor installation and operation. Air cooled machines are directly cooled by ambient air being mechanically circulated directly through the machine's condenser coil to expel heat to the atmosphere. Evaporatively cooled machines are similar, except they implement a mist of water over the condenser coil to aid in condenser cooling, making the machine more efficient than a traditional air cooled machine. No remote cooling tower is typically required with either of these types of packaged air cooled or evaporatively cooled chillers. Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for cooling, or to replace or supplement cooling towers. The Deep Lake Water Cooling System in Toronto, Canada, is an example. It dispensed with the need for cooling towers, with a significant cut in carbon emissions and energy consumption. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to cool city buildings via a district cooling system. The return water is used to warm the city's drinking water supply which is desirable in this cold climate. Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectivenesses are possible. [edit] Vapor-Compression Chiller Technology There are basically four different types of compressors used in vapor compression chillers: Reciprocating compression, scroll compression, screw-driven compression, and centrifugal compression are all mechanical machines that can be powered by electric motors, steam, or gas turbines. They produce their cooling effect via the â€Å"reverse-Rankine† cycle, also known as ‘vapor-compression'. With evaporative cooling heat rejection, their coefficients-of-performance (COPs) are very high and typically 4. 0 or more. In recent years, application of Variable Speed Drive (VSD) technology has increased efficiencies of vapor compression chillers. The first VSD was applied to centrifugal compressor chillers in the late 1970s and has become the norm as the cost of energy has increased. Now, VSDs are being applied to rotary screw and scroll technology compressors. [edit] How Adsorption Technology Works Adsorption chillers are driven by hot water. This hot water may come from any number of industrial sources including waste heat from industrial processes, prime heat from solar thermal installations or from the exhaust or water jacket heat of a piston engine or turbine. The principle of adsorption is based on the interaction of gases and solids. With adsorption chilling, the molecular interaction between the solid and the gas allow the gas to be adsorbed into the solid. The adsorption chamber of the chiller is filled with solid material, silica gel, eliminating the need for moving parts and eliminating the noise associated with those moving parts. The silica gel creates an extremely low humidity condition that causes the water refrigerant to evaporate at a low temperature. As the water evaporates in the evaporator, it cools the chilled water. The use of a benign silica gel desiccant keeps the maintenance costs and operating costs of adsorption chillers low. edit] How Absorption Technology Works Absorption chillers' thermodynamic cycle are driven by heat source; this heat is usually delivered to the chiller via steam, hot water, or combustion. Compared to electrically powered chillers, they have very low electrical power requirements – very rarely above 15 kW combined consumption for both the solution pump and the refr igerant pump. However, their heat input requirements are large, and their COPs are often 0. 5 (single-effect) to 1. 0 (double-effect). For the same tonnage capacity, they require much larger cooling towers than vapor-compression chillers. However, absorption chillers, from an energy-efficiency point-of-view, excel where cheap, high grade heat or waste heat is readily available. In extremely sunny climates, solar energy has been used to operate absorption chillers. The single effect absorption cycle uses water as the refrigerant and lithium bromide as the absorbent. It is the strong affinity that these two substances have for one another that makes the cycle work. The entire process occurs in almost a complete vacuum. 1. Solution Pump – A dilute lithium bromide solution is collected in the bottom of the absorber shell. From here, a hermetic solution pump moves the solution through a shell and tube heat exchanger for preheating. 2. Generator – After exiting the heat exchanger, the dilute solution moves into the upper shell. The solution surrounds a bundle of tubes which carries either steam or hot water. The steam or hot water transfers heat into the pool of dilute lithium bromide solution. The solution boils, sending refrigerant vapor upward into the condenser and leaving behind concentrated lithium bromide. The concentrated lithium bromide solution moves down to the heat exchanger, where it is cooled by the weak solution being pumped up to the generator. . Condenser – The refrigerant vapor migrates through mist eliminators to the condenser tube bundle. The refrigerant vapor condenses on the tubes. The heat is removed by the cooling water which moves through the inside of the tubes. As the refrigerant condenses, it collects in a trough at the bottom of the condenser. 4. Evaporator â⠂¬â€œ The refrigerant liquid moves from the condenser in the upper shell down to the evaporator in the lower shell and is sprayed over the evaporator tube bundle. Due to the extreme vacuum of the lower shell [6 mm Hg (0. kPa) absolute pressure], the refrigerant liquid boils at approximately 39 °F (3. 9 °C), creating the refrigerant effect. (This vacuum is created by hygroscopic action – the strong affinity lithium bromide has for water – in the Absorber directly below. ) 5. Absorber – As the refrigerant vapor migrates to the absorber from the evaporator, the strong lithium bromide solution from the generator is sprayed over the top of the absorber tube bundle. The strong lithium bromide solution actually pulls the refrigerant vapor into solution, creating the extreme vacuum in the evaporator. The absorption of the refrigerant vapor into the lithium bromide solution also generates heat which is removed by the cooling water. The now dilute lithium bromide solution collects in the bottom of the lower shell, where it flows down to the solution pump. The chilling cycle is now completed and the process begins once again. [edit] Industrial chiller technology Industrial chillers typically come as complete packaged closed-loop systems, including the chiller unit, condenser, and pump station with recirculating pump, expansion valve, no-flow shutdown, internal cold water tank, and temperature control. The internal tank helps maintain cold water temperature and prevents temperature spikes from occurring. Closed loop industrial chillers recirculate a clean coolant or clean water with condition addititives at a constant temperature and pressure to increase the stability and reproducibility of water-cooled machines and instruments. The water flows from the chiller to the application's point of use and back. If the water temperature differentials between inlet and outlet are high, then a large external water tank would be used to store the cold water. In this case the chilled water is not going directly from the chiller to the application, but goes to the external water tank which acts as a sort of â€Å"temperature buffer. † The cold water tank is much larger than the internal water tank. The cold water goes from the external tank to the application and the return hot water from the application goes back to the external tank, not to the chiller. The less common open loop industrial chillers control the temperature of a liquid in an open tank or sump by constantly recirculating it. The liquid is drawn from the tank, pumped through the chiller and back to the tank. An adjustable thermostat senses the makeup liquid temperature, cycling the chiller to maintain a constant temperature in the tank. One of the newer developments in industrial water chillers is the use of water cooling instead of air cooling. In this case the condenser does not cool the hot refrigerant with ambient air, but uses water cooled by a cooling tower. This development allows a reduction in energy requirements by more than 15% and also allows a significant reduction in the size of the chiller due to the small surface area of the water based condenser and the absence of fans. Additionally, the absence of fans allows for significantly reduced noise levels. Most industrial chillers use refrigeration as the media for cooling, but some rely on simpler techniques such as air or water flowing over coils containing the coolant to regulate temperature. Water is the most commonly used coolant within process chillers, although coolant mixtures (mostly water with a coolant additive to enhance heat dissipation) are frequently employed. [edit] Industrial chiller selection Important specifications to consider when searching for industrial chillers include the total life cycle cost, the power source, chiller IP rating, chiller cooling capacity, evaporator capacity, evaporator material, evaporator type, condenser material, condenser capacity, ambient temperature, motor fan type, noise level, internal piping materials, number of compressors, type of compressor, number of fridge circuits, coolant requirements, fluid discharge temperature, and COP (the ratio between the cooling capacity in RT to the energy consumed by the whole chiller in KW). For medium to large chillers this should range from 3. 5-7. 0 with higher values meaning higher efficiency. Chiller efficiency is often specified in kilowatts per refrigeration ton (kW/RT). Process pump specifications that are important to consider include the process flow, process pressure, pump material, elastomer and mechanical shaft seal material, motor voltage, motor electrical class, motor IP rating and pump rating. If the cold water temperature is lower than -5 °C, then a special pump needs to be used to be able to pump the high concentrations of ethylene glycol. Other important specifications include the internal water tank size and materials and full load amperage. Control panel features that should be considered when selecting between industrial chillers include the local control panel, remote control panel, fault indicators, temperature indicators, and pressure indicators. Additional features include emergency alarms, hot gas bypass, city water switchover, and casters. [edit] Refrigerants A vapor-compression chiller uses a refrigerant internally as its working fluid. Many refrigerants options are available; when selecting a chiller, the application cooling temperature requirements and refrigerant's cooling characteristics need to be matched. Important parameters to consider are the operating temperatures and pressures. There are several environmental factors that concern refrigerants, and also affect the future availability for chiller applications. This is a key consideration in intermittent applications where a large chiller may last for 25 years or more. Ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global warming potential (GWP) of the refrigerant need to be considered. ODP and GWP data for some of the more common vapor-compression refrigerants: Refrigerant ODP GWP R-134a 0 1300 R-123 0. 012 120 R-22 0. 05 1700 R401a 0. 027 970 R404a 0 3260 R407a 0 R407c 0 1525 R408a 0. 016 3020 R409a 0. 039 1290 R410a 0 1725 R500 0. 7 R502 0. 18 5600 [edit] See also HVAC Cooling tower Evaporative cooling Chemical engineering Mechanical engineering Architectural engineering Building services engineering [edit] References ^ American Society of Heating and Refrigeration Enginneers http://www. ashrae. org/publications/page/158 ^ Hydronika supplies 5 ton chiller units http://hydronika. com

Chapter 22 Apush Key Terms

Marcus Pando Period 4 Chapter 22 Key Terms Describe and state the historical significance of the following: 7. Freedmen's Bureau Initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. At the end of the war, the Bureau's main role was providing emergency food, housing, and medical aid to refugees, though it also helped reunite families. Later, it focused its work on helping the freedmen adjust to their conditions of freedom.Its main job was setting up work opportunities and supervising labor contracts. 8. Exodusters Was a name given to African Americans who left the south[Kansas] in 1879 and 1880. After the end of Reconstruction, racial oppression and rumors of the reinstitution of slavery led many freedmen to seek a new place to live. 9. Wade-Davis Bill Was a bill proposed for the Reconstruction of the South written by two Radical Republicans, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio and Representative Henry Winter Davis of Maryland.In contr ast to President Abraham Lincoln's more lenient Ten Percent Plan, the bill made re-admittance to the Union for former Confederate states contingent on a majority in each Southern state to take the Ironclad oath to the effect they had never in the past supported the Confederacy. 10. Percent Plan 11. moderate/radical Republicans Radical Republicans were a loose faction of American politicians within the Republican Party from about 1854 (before the American Civil War) until the end of Reconstruction in 1877.They called themselves â€Å"radicals† and were opposed during the war by moderates and conservative factions led by Abraham Lincoln and after the war by self-described â€Å"conservatives† (in the South) and â€Å"Liberals† (in the North). Radicals strongly opposed slavery during the war and after the war distrusted ex-Confederates, demanding harsh policies for the former rebels, and emphasizing civil rights and voting rights for Freedmen (recently freed slaves ). [1] 12. Black Codes Black Codes were laws in the United States after the Civil War with the effect of limiting the civil rights and civil liberties of blacks.Even though the U. S. constitution originally discriminated against blacks and both Northern and Southern states had passed discriminatory legislation from the early 19th century, the term Black Codes is used most often to refer to legislation passed by Southern states at the end of the Civil War to control the labor, migration and other activities of newly-freed slaves. 13. sharecropping Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e. g. , 50% of the crop).Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of different situations and types of agreements that have encompassed the system. Some are governed by tradition, others by law. 14. Civil Rights Act A United States federal law that was mainly intended to pro tect the civil rights of African-Americans, in the wake of the American Civil War. The Act was enacted by Congress in 1865 but vetoed by President Andrew Johnson. In April 1866 Congress again passed the bill. Although Johnson again vetoed it, a two-thirds majority in each house overcame the veto and the bill became law. 5. Fourteenth Amendment Its Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) that had held that black people could not be citizens of the United States. [1] Its Due Process Clause prohibits state and local governments from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without certain steps being taken to ensure fairness. This clause has been used to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states, as well as to recognize substantive and procedural rights.Its Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people within its ju risdiction. This clause was the basis for Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court decision which precipitated the dismantling of racial segregation in United States education. In Reed v. Reed (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that laws arbitrarily requiring sex discrimination violated the Equal Protection Clause. The amendment also includes a number of clauses dealing with the Confederacy and its officials. 17. Reconstruction ActAfter the end of the American Civil War, as part of the on-going process of Reconstruction, the United States Congress passed four statutes known as Reconstruction Acts. The actual title of the initial legislation was â€Å"An act to provide for the more efficient government of the Rebel States† and it was passed on March 2, 1867. Fulfillment of the requirements of the Acts were necessary for the former Confederate States to be readmitted to the Union. The Acts excluded Tennessee, which had already ratified the 14th Amendment and had been readmitted to the Union. 8. Fifteenth Amendment Prohibits each government in the United States from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's â€Å"race, color, or previous condition of servitude† (for example, slavery). It was ratified on February 3, 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is one of the Reconstruction Amendments. 19. Ex parte Milligan Was a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that the application of military tribunals to citizens when civilian courts are still operating is unconstitutional.It was also controversial because it was one of the first cases after the end of the American Civil War. 22. scalawags Were southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party after the Civil War. Like similar terms such as â€Å"carpetbagger† the word has a long history of use as a slur against southerners considered by other conservative or pro-federation Southerners to betray southern values by supporting policies considered Nort hern such as desegregation and racial integration. 1] The term is commonly used in historical studies as a neutral descriptor of Southern White Republicans, though some historians have discarded the term due to its history of pejorative connotations. [2] 23. carpetbaggers Was a pejorative term Southerners gave to Northerners (also referred to as Yankees) who moved to the South during the Reconstruction era, between 1865 and 1877.24. Ku Klux Klan advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism. 10] Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist. [10] The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters with no connections between each other; it is classified as a hate group by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. [11] It is estimated to have between 3,000 and 5,000 members as of 2012. [12] The first Klan flourished in the Southern U nited States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members adopted white costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities. 13]The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid 1920s, and adopted the same costumes and code words as the first Klan, while introducing cross burnings. [14] The third KKK emerged after World War II and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the USA's â€Å"Anglo-Saxon† and â€Å"Celtic† blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism and claiming descent from the original 18th-century British colonial revolutionaries. 15] The first and third incarnations of the Klan have well-established records of engaging in terrorism and political violence, though historians debate whether or not the tactic was supported by the second KKK. 25. Forc e Acts Can refer to several groups of acts passed by the United States Congress. The term usually refers to the events after the American Civil War. 26. Tenure of Office Act Was a federal law (in force from 1867 to 1887) that was intended to restrict the power of the President of the United States to remove certain office-holders without the approval of the Senate.The law was enacted on March 3, 1867, over the veto of President Andrew Johnson. It purported to deny the president the power to remove any executive officer who had been appointed by a past president, without the advice and consent of the Senate, unless the Senate approved the removal during the next full session of Congress. 27. Impeachment of President Johnson The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 17th President of the United States, was one of the most dramatic events in the political life of the United States during Reconstruction, and the first impeachment in history of a sitting United States president.Johnson was impe ached for his efforts to undermine Congressional policy; he was acquitted by one vote. The Impeachment was the consummation of a lengthy political battle, between the moderate Johnson and the â€Å"Radical Republican† movement that dominated Congress and sought control of Reconstruction policies. Johnson was impeached on February 24, 1868 in the U. S. House of Representatives on eleven articles of impeachment detailing his â€Å"high crimes and misdemeanors†,[1] in accordance with Article Two of the United States Constitution.The House's primary charge against Johnson was with violation of the Tenure of Office Act, passed by Congress the previous year. Specifically, he had removed Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War (whom the Tenure of Office Act was largely designed to protect), from office and replaced him with Major General Lorenzo Thomas. The House agreed to the articles of impeachment on March 2, 1868. The trial began three days later in the Senate, with Suprem e Court Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding.Trial concluded on May 26 with Johnson's acquittal, the votes for conviction being one less than the required two-thirds tally. The impeachment and subsequent trial gained a historical reputation as an act of political expedience, rather than necessity, based on Johnson's defiance of an unconstitutional piece of legislation and with little regard for the will of the public (which, despite the unpopularity of Johnson, opposed the impeachment). Until the impeachment of Bill Clinton 131 years later, it was the only presidential impeachment in the history of the United States.

Attachment Styles And Romantic Relationship Outcomes Psychology Essay

Attachment Styles And Romantic Relationship Outcomes Psychology Essay Many researchers have shown a link between attachment styles and romantic relationship outcomes. Attachment styles deals with early infant parent caring and environment, internal working models of themselves, their early relationships with peer or friends and attachment security. These major attachment styles leads to the different timing of the first sexual intercourse which later shows links to relationship satisfaction, quality of romantic relationships, union formation and the number of romantic partners. The timing of first sexual activity is classified at either early age (14 or earlier), on time (15-19) or late age (19 or older) (Harden 2012). Many studies have shown that individuals prefer partners with similar attachment style, a complementary attachment style or either the attachment style most likely to form attachment security, is all dealt with the age of an individual. This theory of attachment increases the understanding of Hardens (2012) findings and explains these f indings by him. The characteristics and stability of teenagers romantic relationship in young adulthood is concerned with the timing of teenager ¿Ã‚ ½s first sexual intercourse. One theory that suggests reasons for the quality of this romantic relationship is the attachment theory. John Bowlby was the first Psychologist to introduce the attachment theory, describing attachment as a â€Å"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings† (Bowlby, 1969). The attachment theory states that people  ¿Ã‚ ½construct internal, working models of themselves and their early relationships, which function to guide social behaviour throughout their life span ¿Ã‚ ½ (Bowlby, 1973). Hazen and shaver (1987) also concluded that attachment styles may influence the quality of their romantic experiences and their beliefs on relationships. This attachment theory and peer relationships are able to explain Hardens (2012) findings that concluded that  ¿Ã‚ ½timing of first sexual interco urse in adolescence predicts romantic outcomes in adulthood, including union formation, number of romantic partners, and relationship dissatisfaction ¿Ã‚ ½. The essential argument of the attachment theory is if parents are not available and responsive to their children ¿Ã‚ ½s needs are likely to face difficulties in their lives. Belsky et al. (1991); ¿Ã‚ ½Belsky, 1997) ¿Ã‚ ½claimed that an individual ¿Ã‚ ½s early family environment, including the childhood-parent attachment relationship, conveys to children the risks and uncertainties they are likely to face in their lifetimes (Belsky, J. et al. 2010). It has been stated that  ¿Ã‚ ½Such information adaptively regulates psychological, behavioural, and reproductive development, either toward a mutually beneficial orientation to interpersonal relations or toward an opportunistic, advantage-taking point of view ¿Ã‚ ½ (Belsky, J. et al. 2010). This may result and affect mating behaviour, pair bonding, and parental investmen t, and also has been said to result earlier or later sexual intercourse, number of romantic partner, unstable or stable relationships and union formation(Belsky, J. et al. 2010). From this evidence attachment of individuals with their parents explains the results in which romantic relationships are created and built and timing of first sexual intercourse. Friendships are extremely significant during adolescence, so an individual might experience internal working models (attachment theory) of close friendships to become particularly influential during this time (Trinke and Bartholomew, 1997; Weiss, 1991).Researchers have proposed that friendship during adolescence is provided as a supplement rather than a replacement for relationships between parents and should be considered as a unique factor on adolescent functioning (Furman Paterson et al. 1994). Peer relationship or friendship is known to contribute to later romantic relationship outcomes, and best known by the scholar Sullivan( 1953). He viewed  ¿Ã‚ ½chumpships established in middle childhood as foundational for later romantic relationships ¿Ã‚ ½ (Madsen, S., & Collins, W. 2011). A research by Neemann et al. (1995), documented that peer relationships or friendships during the age of middle adolcence influences factors such as romantic relationship involvement, number of romantic partners, and relationship satisfaction and the quality of relationship in young adulthood. Furthermore, rejections experienced by friends in middle adolescence are significant issues in the development of rejection sensitivity, and the results of these experiences of rejection have been strongly correlated with dissatisfaction in romantic relationships (Downey, Bonica, & Rinc ¿Ã‚ ½n, 1999).

What, in todays conditions, appear to be the greatest limitations of Essay

What, in todays conditions, appear to be the greatest limitations of the classical organisational theories - Essay Example This gave rise to Frederick Winslow Taylor’s work known as Scientific Management. He was of the view that management practices should change and that change was to be established through scientific study and precise measures instead of just following rules of thumb. The first recommendation of Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management was that a scientific job analysis should be used to find out that one best way to perform every job that maximizes efficiency. This should be done through using observation at the workplace, gathering relevant data and then using them devise the most efficient procedures for each job.(Daft, 2004) Scientific Management also insisted upon selecting the right people for the right job. Workers should be trained and developed. Moreover, the managers must make it a point to work closely with the workers, cooperate with them, and ensure that all work is done according to the plan introduced by the scientific management practices. Scientific Management drew a clear line between the managers and the workers in their roles. Managers’ roles included planning, organizing and decision-making, whereas, workers are only supposed to perform the jobs. (Daft, 2004) Where Scientific Management talked about increasing the productivity and efficiency of individual workers, the administrative management involved the organization as a whole. The three important contributors to this approach were Max Weber, Henri Fayol and Luther Hasley Gulick. Max Weber, a German theorist, introduced the concept of looking at organizations as a whole. This was known as the bureaucratic organizations approach (Daft, 2004). During the 1800s, organizations lacked a formal organizational structure. The family like structure in the organizations meant that employees were not devoted to the mission of the company and instead, were only loyal to individual supervisors or managers. Consequently, workers were using the resources of the organization to

Religious Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Religious Studies - Essay Example II. Historical Occurrences: Historical events such as the revolution also played a part as the Father's desired a 'break' from the traditionalist British religions. The American Revolution itself has sacred tales of origins, the centre and the source for an American civil religion. (pp. 297, 298). III. Unity and Nationalism: The need for a 'one religion and many religions' also enforced the founding father's to adopt the civil religion. As early as 1749, Benjamin Franklin was already speaking about the need for 'publick religion' (p. 284). Deliberations of the continental congress 25 years after that birthed the US were filled with attention to religious details (p. 284). They adopted a religious system with a 'theology, creed and set of symbols related to their political state existing alongside the churches' (p. 284). They sought to promote nationalism. Civil religion was designed to 'unite many people from many different nations into one state (a political state)' thus creating nation and a nation state (p.285). By the time George Washington took his first oath of office in New York, civil religion was in place. It had arisen out of England Puritanism, but especially out of a union of Puritanism with the engagement of Americans (p.285). Roman Catholism was "introduced into America by Spanish, French missionaries" and introduced to the new world sacramentalism. "Sacramentalism did not end with the seven sacraments; it was a means of understanding the mystery of the church, human life, and the natural world". From sacrament perspective "the sign of God's reality was God's presence among humans". The Pope of Rome was that presence, "the sign of the church: representing the reality of God and acting as a conduit through whom God communicated with human". He was "Vicar and stood equal to the bible as a source of spiritual authority". The Catholic Church "unlike a sect or denomination" sought to include ideally all the "human race not withstanding territory or culture". It sought to include all saints and sinners. "The church was the sign of God's presence in the world". (pp. 66, 67) 4. Do you think that it's possible for modern Americans to return to the primordial religions of their ancestors Why or Why not Religion in the United States evolved over centuries from the religious beliefs of the Native American to the dominant Christianity. From Protestantism to Scientology most modern Americans are still trying to find a balance in the many denominations and sometimes adopting new ones, clearly according to their beliefs, convictions or lack of 'faith' in others. For the native Americans "culture was tradition was religion" (p. 21), while in contrast for modern Americans "religion transcended culture" (p. 21). The current era of coexistence of "one religion and many religions is a fact of American life" (p. 371) and provides solace for Americans uprooted by a

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Finance - Essay Example The business organisations in order to expand on both its sales and revenue paradigms focus on expanding into international territories where they would be able to get hold of newer markets and newer customer segments. Body This process of international expansion is made possible by the business corporations depending on certain premises like conducting trades related to exporting of commodities to foreign nations, through rendering investment in business units created in foreign territories, opening up of new production units in the foreign locations. Further the business corporations can also move to conduct business in international areas through the creation of contracts with support firms to gain both managerial and technical expertise. Finally the business houses can also go for selling intangible assets like trademarks and patent rights through effective licensing schemes or can also expand into foreign territories by working on franchising activities. The method of exporting used by business to probe into international markets helps to gain wider recognition in such areas at reduced cost.Business corporations can focus on gaining control over foreign firms through the rendering of high amount of investments in such. Business organizations by focusing on opening up newer production zones help in generating economies of scale . These external business units can work on getting cheap local labour and also get a better understanding of the foreign markets and business territories. The method of forming external business contracts with firms located in foreign soil helps in outsourcing business expertise to these areas in return for an appropriate fee structure. Through licensing activities the business organisations can also gain more revenues and stake in foreign firms by selling knowledge assets top foreign firms. Finally through the franchising activities the business corporations can gain enhanced access to foreign markets where the cost of investments and risks involved is low (Global Business Strategy, 2001). Conclusion The above context describes the different methods which the business corporations can take to expand its business in international markets. Such activities reflect both cost intensive and market expansion strategies which helps the business corporations to enhance both their revenue and market structures. 2 Discuss the different types of risk that can impact upon an organization trading on an international basis. Introduction The potential business risks which the business organisations face while doing business in international markets are related to the transportation of commodities in international zones, risks pertaining to commercial activities, the large amount of political risks pertaining to the different international zones, other risks relating to the financial and economic conditions and other risks owing to the emergence of adverse business conditions. Body The first risk involved relates to the damag e to the products involved owing to improper transportation which amounts to breakage and spoilage of the goods involved. Again risks arise from the product interface owing to unavailability of the right amount of payment. Product risks are also involved owing to faulty manufacturing practices wherein production of faulty products leads to loss of business by the seller. The segment pertaining to commercial risks reflect that insolvency position of the buying community leads to loss

Pro and Cons of Legalizing Marijuana Research Paper

Pro and Cons of Legalizing Marijuana - Research Paper Example Scientists have conducted many experiments on marijuana, which have proved that the plant has very many medicinal attributes. Protagonists are pushing for marijuana legalization by showing evidence that the plant can be used to control or cure a variety of medical complications. First, marijuana has anti-inflammatory attributes, and it is also used as a pain reliever. It is a very potent pain reliever that can be used to numb pain experienced by patients with AIDS, Cancer or multiple sclerosis and other painful medical conditions. Marijuana also contains substances that can prevent Alzheimer’s disease or some of the symptoms, especially in elderly people. Marijuana has also indicated great success in fighting neurological decay and inflammation caused by old age. Marijuana has been used to control seizures, increase appetite in AIDS and cancer victims, fight glaucoma, epilepsy and muscular dystrophy. Scientists have also isolated cancer-fighting substances in marijuana that ha ve proved to beneficial in the fight against cancer. These are a few examples of the medicinal value of marijuana and as more research is conducted on the plant, there are prospects in finding new medicinal attributes of the cannabis plant. It is only ethical for lawmakers to consider these beneficial attributes of marijuana, which surpass its abuse, therefore, legalizing the cannabis plant (Caulkins, 2012). Economically, the government will reap billions from legalizing marijuana because it is an underground and untaxed business.

Case study analysis - Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Case study analysis - Report - Essay Example Consequently, the Doctors focused on the reduction of costs and shortening of stays of various patients in the hospitals, after surgery operations as shown in exhibit 1 in the appendix. However, they faced problems with increased cost pressures throughout healthcare industry increasingly affecting prestigious and expensive academic hospitals such as MGH. Additionally, care path did not dictate the medical treatment of patients. Consistent treatment procedures embodied significant philosophical shifts of physicians generated in making independent medical decisions based on cases. Therefore, the implementation of CABG for surgeries by the doctors incorporated several problems that affected costs on medicines, medical treatment, philosophical shifts, and decision-making processes that delayed processes of operations for coronary artery bypass graft. Bohmer, as the care path facilitator, believed in the success of care path through the corporation and accepted assistance of hospital staff to enable the development of pathways since it hastens the ongoing reduction of hospital bed count. Moreover, it leads to loss of jobs because of more efficient practices (Wheelwright and Weber 2). Torchiana, the team leaders, instrument the creation of care path and continued implementation. Moreover, emphasis on the need for controlling costs and care path merits develops from ideas that Torchiana put across at MGH, despite the problems that they face. Moreover, total quality management (TQM) implementation becomes difficult since the cost of implementing and developing CABG becomes difficult to allow for surgery operations. TQM presents a management approach in an organization that focuses on quality and participation of all members of the organization (Chartered Quality Institute 1). The approach applies to the entire organization. The care path developed at MGH did not introduce new treatment technologies. It attempted to

Industry Analysis and Outlook Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Industry Analysis and Outlook - Essay Example Recently, with the advent of globalization and information technology, the e-commerce market has swelled exponentially. Online retail sales are growing 30% annually. The basic reasons for this growth are: convenience, information sharing, and personalization. Other historical facts which confirm the growth of this sort of market place are: Euromonitor reported that India will be Asia’s fastest growing market for online travel retail by 2010. Moreover the consumer e-commerce market in India is estimated to cross 90 billion by 2011. So after considering these facts and figures the industry outlook is looking very optimistic. These figures should encourage business to setup online channels to reach their customers. However, some caution is also required when going online. The biggest worry for businesses that went online was the harm this step caused to their relationship with their existing retailers and whole sellers. But a counter strategy is worth developing, and businesses c annot ignore the potential market that can be tapped through the internet. Critical needs of perceived market: Mail Attire is aiming to address the needs of those set of individuals who are office going, and therefore are time starved to concentrate on their office wear. Since they do not have time to lookout for comfortable and stylish office wear, they end up wearing out of fashion and uncomfortable clothes. Here, the company come in; the product offering will address customers need for comfort and look stylish in front of their peers. After thorough research in office wear category, the company has finally reached the conclusion that the comfort problem can be eliminated through precise fitting and measuring of outfit, while the need to look stylish can be satisfied through offering quality fabric. Therefore, the company will work along these dimensions and try to satisfy all our customers. Business Model: Since, the company is committed in providing the customers with comfort an d style, and that too without wasting their time. The company is therefore having a brick and mortar business model. To get the accurate body measurements of the customer they would be invited to the company store, where the expert tailor will personally take the body measurements and feed them into the online customer database. Well, after this procedure customers would not have to come back again to the store for body measurements unless they experience a change in the body mass. Having done this, the customer can return home and through the customer-oriented website place an order of his liking and budget, whenever he feel free. In the diversified and highly selective fabric portfolio of the company, customers will find fashionable and comfortable material. After customers have placed an order, the company will take seven working days to deliver the order. Identifying the target market: Initially the company will be targeting the audience of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: U.S Census B ureau Figures 2010 Population of Pittsburgh (city), Pennsylvania 305,704 Bachelor's degree or higher, % of persons 33.80% Targeted Working Class 103327.952 This targeted working class will form the probable clientele. General profile of targeted clients: The potential Clients are educated,

First Grade Curriculum Guide for Mentally Retarded Students Essay Example for Free

First Grade Curriculum Guide for Mentally Retarded Students Essay Various models of language, which are rich and are in various forms of literature, including, poetry, songs and fiction are to be introduced. The five major ideas in reading are some of the basis of the curriculum and the instructions. They inspire the various assessments that to be used. Phonemic Awareness: It involves the ability to and be able to manipulate sounds in words. It also involves the ability to isolate letters and sounds and also to blend sound and segment sounds. Alphabetic Principle: This refers to the capability of associating sounds with letters and uses these sounds to form new words. Fluency with text: Is the effortless and the ability of the reader to read words in connected text automatically. Vocabulary: Being able to effectively understand and use words so as to acquire and convey meaning. Comprehension: This process involves the intentional communication that takes place between the reader and the text to be able to convey meaning. Literacy Centers Each day a child will be expected to participate in centers. This will allow the children to be able to explore various materials, try to reinforce concepts already taught and direct their own learning. The centers are likely to change weekly. They include: Word wall centre, Art centre, Listening centre, poetry centre, spelling centre and Reading centre. Writing, Spelling and Phonics The children will be given the courage to apply their knowledge of letter sounds as temporal spelling. After the child knowing how to say words slowly as well as listening to the sounds, this should help him record the message and think of himself as a writer. As the child progresses, he will be expected to move toward a more convectional spelling and therefore will be held increasingly accountable. Words and spelling of high frequency are taught when working with words block of time. In each week, there will be an introduction of word wall words which will be seen by the child always during the time of reading and therefore he will need to spell frequently while writing. To add on that, through these words, the child will be taught letter sounds and some spelling patterns of the words that are well known such as â€Å"at† so that they are able to spell words like â€Å"fat†, â€Å"sat†, â€Å"mat† and even â€Å"cat†. The goal is to enable the child recognize the spelling patterns and then consistently use them while writing. The writers’ workshops will consist of ample time for writing, mini lessons and during guided writing sessions, there will be sharing of time. Grammar will be taught to children including the use of punctuation marks. There will be the use of modern manuscript as a form of handwriting. There will be no extra time being spent on teaching formal handwriting, but rather there will be incorporation of the teaching of proper letter formation into some other daily lessons. Reading Curriculum The development of literacy will form the primary focus of the first grade year. There will be a well balanced literacy program which will include a wide range of language experiences which involve reading, writing, listening and speaking (American Association and School Administrators, 2006) Reading aloud to children This will be a guided reading where by the teacher will be required to read allowed for the children to pay extra attention to be able to hear what is being read. The children listen carefully. The children will then read with the teachers help. This is achieved when the teacher reads then the children repeat what is being reading. Shared Reading This is also referred to as Independent reading. There are two forms of independent reading: †¢ Children read in group together †¢ Children read alone First, there will be grouping of children to enable them read as a group. In this they will be able to assist each other catch up. Those who are fast in mastering the words are likely to play important roles. After doing this the children will be allowed to read on their own (individually). This is the best time to determine whether a child has got something from the session.

Delineation Of Pipeline Coating Defects Company Engineering Essay

Delineation Of Pipeline Coating Defects Company Engineering Essay The business sector of corrosion monitoring and control solutions we provide expertise in consultation, evaluation, design and installation of cathodic protection systems. With established field assessment techniques and specialized equipment such as CIPS/DCVG survey equipment. Engineers collect record and analyze field data efficiently so that clients are able to run safe and highly optimized systems. Corrosion solutions are provided in a cost effective and with highly professionalism to enable clients to enhance their facilities integrity management systems. Introduction: The external inspections using DCVG-direct current voltage gradient technique was performed on this pipeline on March 10th 2011 to March 24th 2011.Cathodic protection and coating are complementary to each other and when applied together, result in reliable corrosion mitigation. Cathodic design presupposes certain coating breakdown criterion for the given type of coating and given environment. If coating break down exceeds beyond the maximum percentage limit presupposed by the CP system design, cathodic protection may become ineffective. To ensure the effective cathodic protection and effective corrosion control, it is desired to access the condition of the coating of the underground pipeline. Exposing the pipeline by excavation all along the length, for this purpose is impractical. Various methods have been evolved for the assessment of coating condition without excavation. One of the methods is Direct current voltage gradient survey. Safety: The site activities were performed as per the applicable safety procedures. Work permit was obtained prior to commencing of site activities. The HSE requirements were explained by PCML engineer to the site team. All personnel safety gears such as safety boots, coverall. Hard hat, googles etc were used during the site work. Codes and standards: The measured potentials and performance of the cathodic protection system, equipment and materials shall comply with the requirements PTS and NACE standards code and other authority having jurisdiction over the system. NACE RP-O502-2002 Pipeline external corrosion Direct Assessment Methodology. NACE RP-0169-96 control of External corrosion of underground or submerged metallic Piping systems. NACE RP-05-75 Design, installation, operation and maintenance of impressed current Deep ground bed. The scope of work performed in this project is in accordance to industry standards has been maintained to ensure international codes of practice in corrosion control. The criteria used for protective potentials of buried steel are indicated in NACE international national association of corrosion engineerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s standards. Pipeline details: The pipeline has the following physical characteristics and these details shall be applied to design the cp system. GSPC on shore gas pipeline Length : 67km Coating : three layer polyethylene Service : gas Source station : poc (chain age 10 km) Destination station : metering station (chain age 67 km) Introduction to DCVG coating survey equipment: The direct current voltage gradient (DCVG) pipeline coating survey test equipment is version 9, and is the most technologically advanced version of the equipment that can be traced directly back to the original invention of the technique in Australia by john mulvany. With the equipment described in this document, through experience in its use and interpretation, it is possible to gather with a reasonable degree of confidence the following information about the pipeline being inspected. Coating fault epicenter location to within a 15cm circle, which means that excavation costs can be reduced. The approximate severity of the coating fault can be established so that coating faults can be prioritized for repair. The approximate corrosion behavior of individual coating faults can be established to ease identification of those coating faults that do not have sufficient cathodic protection. DCVG technique does not however detect metal loss but identifies sites where metal loss is possible. Identification of where coating faults gets its cathodic protection from, cp that the vulnerability of coating fault to being unprotected if a CP source becomes inoperable can be established. Identification of coating faults that are discharging or picking up DC Traction interference so that more effective mitigation technique can be implemented. Establish the effectiveness of insulating flanges. Identification of interfering structures that robs CP from the pipeline. Identification of defective test probes at which pipe to soil potentials are routinely monitored. Rapidly establish sections of pipeline that have a larger number of coating faults by studying the rate of decay of the DC voltage gradient signal on the pipeline. The data gathered by DCVG technique is not absolute but relative and is influenced by a series of parameters such as soil resistivity, depth of burial etc whose effects must be taken into account to improve the accuracy of any data. Typical applications of DC voltage Gradient Technology: Shown below are some typical applications of DC voltage gradient technology to evaluate the protective coatings and cathodic protection on buried pipelines. It has to be remembered that the protective coating on a buried pipeline is premier corrosion protection mechanism but all coatings have coating faults in them. To control corrosion of steel exposed at coating faults, cathodic protection is used. Cathodic protection is supportive technique. The relationship between cathodic protection and protective coatings is important and since DCVG studies this relationship and provides valuable information to control corrosion. Typical Applications are: Evaluate pipeline coatings to define rehabilitation requirements. Define weakness in the cathodic protection system. Validate that the pipeline has been constructed with minimum coating faults. Investigate interference effects. Establish effectiveness of insulating flanges and other methods of pipeline isolation. Provides data for operating license validation. Surveying complex pipeline networks not possible by other methods. Surveying under concrete and asphalt in city streets. Capable of surveying under over head power lines. Electrical continuity checking of mechanically jointed pipelines. Principle of the DCVG Technique: When DC is applied to a pipeline in the same way as cathodic protection (CP) the current flow through the soil to steel exposed at coating faults generates a voltage gradient in the resistive soil. The larger the current flowing the greater the soil resistivity and the closer to the coating fault location all give rise to larger voltage gradient. In general larger the defect, bigger the current flow and hence the voltage gradient, which is used to size coating faults so they can be prioritized for repair. In the DC voltage gradient technique the DC signal impressed on to the pipeline is pulsed at a frequency of 1.25 hertz. The DC signal can be impressed on top of the existing CP system of the pipeline or the CP system itself can be utilized by inserting a special switch or interrupter into one of the output cables from the nearest transformer rectifier. Only one transformer rectifier nearest to the survey area needs to be interrupted at any one time, thus the limitations of the other over line surveys where all DC influences have to be switched at precisely the same time does not apply for coating fault location. For more precise and intensive studies it is advisable to interrupt synchronously a number of rectifiers that are affecting the area being surveyed. For fault location the pulsing DC signal can even be imposed at a test post using batteries or a portable DC generator and temporary ground bed. Unique feature of DC voltage gradient technique is that the pulsed signal is irregular in shape i.e. switched ON for 0.45 sec of a cycle and OFF for 0.8 sec of a cycle. The irregular pulse allows the direction of current flow to be determined and compared to all other DC influences at an individual coating fault, enabling the degree of protection against corrosion at individual faults to be determined at the time of survey. To monitor the voltage gradient in the soil the technique utilizes measuring on a sensitive and especially constructed milli voltmeter, the difference in voltage between two copper/copper sulphate half cells placed in the soil at ground level. When spaced one meter a part in a voltage gradient one half cell will adopt a more positive potential than the other which enables the direction of current flow which caused the voltage gradient to be established. In surveying a pipeline the operator walks over the pipeline route testing for pulsating voltage gradient at regular intervals. As coating fault is approached the surveyor will observe the milli voltmeter needle begin to respond to the pulse, pointing in the direction of current flow which should always be towards the coating fault on the pipeline. When the coating fault is passed the needle direction completely reverses and slowly decreases in amplitude as the surveyor moves away from the defect. By retracing to the coating fault a position of the electrodes can be found where the needle shows no deflection in either direction (a null). The coating fault is then sited midway between the two electrodes this procedure is then repeated at right angles to the first set of observations, and where the two midway positions cross is the location of the voltage gradient epicenter. The coating fault epicenter location is then pegged. In order to determine various characteristics about a defect, such as severity shape, corrosion behavior etc. Various electrical measurements around the epicenter and from epicenter to remote earth are made for detailed interpretation. Survey Switch (Interrupter): The survey switch utilizes a solid state device to switch the applied DC at one of two speeds determined by the position of the STD/SLOW switch. The STD/SLOW switch has two positions which represent: STANDARD (STD) setting 0.45seconds ON followed by 0.9 seconds OFF SLOW setting 0.9 seconds ON followed by 1.8 seconds OFF The STANDARD setting of the switch is used for normal surveying to find coating faults. This speed of switching matches the typical response time of a survey operative. The SLOW switch position is used in conjunction with a digital voltmeter for pipe to soil potential measurements or current measurements via an inline calibrated shunt. The interrupter is connected in series into either the negative or positive cables from the DC source being interrupted. The negative cable is preferred. This is setup so that the cable coming from the transformer/rectifier is connected to the BLACK terminal on the interrupter and the cable from the pipe is connected to the RED terminal on the interrupter. Danger : under no circumstances should the terminals of the interrupter be directly connected across the terminals of the DC power source/ transformer rectifier as this will short out the power source and do serious damage to the interrupter and the DC power source. Also do not under any circumstance connect the DC interrupter terminals to an AC source. Survey meter: Survey Meter: The dominant visible feature of the survey meter is the analogue meter movement. The meter has a center zero needle position. This means that with voltage across the meter input, the needle rests at mid scale irrespective of the range switch position. The survey meter has the following voltage ranges 10mv, 25mv, 50mv, 100mv, 250mv, 1v, 2.5v, 4v. the voltage range of the meter can be selected using the voltage range switch sited on right hand side of the meter front panel. The range switches correspond to various ranges or multiples of the ranges on the analogue meter scale. The 10mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 5mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). The 25mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 12.5mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). The 50mv on the voltage range corresponds to the zero to ten milli-volts full scale deflection on the analogue meter (plus or minus 25mv about the center rest position of the meter needle). When not in use the range switch should be turned to the 4-volt range to minimize any chance of meter damage. Probes and Handles: The standard probes used with the DC voltage gradient equipment are especially adapted approximately one meter long copper/copper sulphate reference electrodes. The probes are lightweight, high strength tubes fixed at one end to an insulated stainless steel stud that provides both electrical and mechanical connection to the probe handle. The other end of the probe electrode contains a conductive wooden plug to make electrochemical contact between the soil and the copper sulphate solution/copper electrode. The wooden plug is a push fit into its plastic holder with PTTE tape used a washer. The plastic holder screws onto the probe using a flat rubber washer as the seal. Only one probe handle is switched on and used at any one time during the survey. The other is used as a spare. Plain handles that have no bias are available since only one bias handle is used at any one time for surveying. The probe handle has a built in bias that is controlled via an ON/OFF/Range switch and a Bias adjustment potentiometer. Preparing Equipment For Survey: Battery charging: Generally the DCVG meter and the interrupter will require charging more frequently than the handles. Each equipment will require separate continues charging for two days if the batteries are entirely flat. When operating several sets in order to ensure all components parts of the equipment sets are adequately maintained it is advisable to number each component and set up a charging register to keep a tally of what equipment has been charged when and for how long. Probes: A wooden probe tip should first be wrapped around its cylindrical section with white PTFE tape applying sufficient to ensure the wooden tip is a firm push fit into the probe tip holder. All the three holders should and tips should be soaked in portable water overnight. Water uptake causes the wood to expand and give a liquid tight seal. The copper/copper sulphate probes are filled with copper sulphate solution. The probe is filled almost full of copper sulphate solution through the probe tip holder end. The presoaked tip and holder plus washer are screwed onto the probe to make a liquid tight seal, the probe is inverted to correct position and the handle is screwed. Surveying Setting up DCVG signal: The most important parameter in ensuring an accurate survey and in determining the survey speed is the amplitude of DCVG pulsed signal. It is worth to spend time during setting up the DCVG signal is atleast 150mv and no larger than 1500mv. As the signal amplitude or strength vary along a pipeline, the signal strength at start(drain point) should be 1500mv and that at the other should be at least 150mv. A rapid decay of signal as described as above measured at two locations say would be an indication of poor coating on the pipeline. The presence of many coating faults or some large drain on the CO system can be expected. Whereas good coating would show very little attenuation of signal amplitude. The signal strength or amplitude is the difference between ON and OFF potentials measured on the pipe to remote earth, whilst the interrupter is switching ON and OFF the applied DC source. The amplitude is measured on the DCVG meter as the pulse size, the milli volts size of pulse is determined by measuring the difference in extremities of the pulsing meter needle using the bias and range switches to bring the full pulse onto the meter dial. The pulse amplitude at test posts measured to remote earth in not the same as the difference between ON and OFF pipe to soil potentials measured only at the test post. To get full value and meaning from DCVG measurements, the ideal source is CP system itself set at the same level of output as normal operation. Some adjustment to the TR unit output might be required if signal levels are inadequate. Rectifier: If there is no CP system installed then a temporary CP system must be setup. Ideally maximum of 50 amperes should be installed. A temporary ground bed may be steel poles inserted into the soil, or any steel structure such as a fencing post, overhead power line earthing systems, scrap, steel pipe, etc. caution need to be exercised in order not to burn out the interrupter. The interrupter should be connected into the electrical circuit as shown in the fig, utilizing short wire of optimum 10mm in cross section. The black terminal of the interrupter should be connected to the cable going to the pipeline. The polarity connection in important, if connected around the wrong way the interrupter will not switch the DC output if this happens just reverse the terminal connections on the interrupter. The interrupter should be inserted with the transformer rectifier set in its lowest output setting and the transformer rectifier mains electricity switch in the OFF position. For TR with a known output that is less than 25 amperes, after the interrupter has been inserted and the interrupter switch set to the ON position and interrupting speed switch to standard, the TR should be switched on and the output slowly increased to give normal output or higher to give an adequate DCVG signal. Poor temporary anode setup is the usual cause of inadequate signal. With a temporary setup where the DC source are batteries, a welding set or rectifier with no ammeter it is important that the following procedure is followed in order not to damage the interrupter by passing too much current. Adjustment to ensure good signal require trail and error and patience but extra time spent in setting up the signal will give greater confidence in the quality of the survey, which is usually achieved at a greater speed than on pipelines with a poor signal. Measurement of the signal level at test posts are carried out in exactly the same way as ,measurements made to measure pipe to soil potentials, except there are two measurements in this case : From the copper wire or test post terminal to the soil alongside the test post. From the soil position alongside the test post to remote earth. Assembling the DCVG equipment: Thr reference probes previously filled with cu/cuso4 solution and fitted with tips are screwed onto the probe handles. The meter strap is placed around the neck and waist so that the meter fits snugly on the operator. The connecting leads are fitted into the meter and into the probes to interconnect the two probes to the meter. The meter function switch is then turned ON and the range switch adjusted from 4volts to 1000mvolts. With the probe tips placed in the soil the bias to the right hand probe is switched ON. The bias to the left hand probe is not switched on, it is a spare available if needed, also to increase the amount of bias available should that from one handle not be sufficient because of large background DC in the soil. Move to the test point at which the signal is to be measured. With right hand probe make contact with the soil and with the left hand probe or with the plug end of the left hand cable, make connection to the test point wire. Adjust the right hand bias control knob and meter range switch until the full extent of the meter needle deflection is visible on the meter scale. Adjust the meter range until the deflection cane be read accurately . if for example the meter is on the 1000mv range and the mater needle deflection is from 225mv in the OFF position to 850 mv in the ON position , the signal on the pipeline at the test post is 850-225=625milli volts. Having measured the pipe to soil signal strength there is another measurement that to remote earth which must be added to that from pipe to soil to give the full signal strength at the test post. In measurement to remote earth the probes are used like a set of dividers by starting at the soil position at the test post and moving away at right angles, summing the voltages observed for each position of the half cells. Remote earth is reached when two or more readings small in size are the same. The signal strength should be noted at every test post and all other potential monitoring points along the pipeline route. Measurements must be taken at either end of a section under Overline To Remote Earth Potential Measurement. Survey as well as the distance apart, as these readings are required for calculating pipe to remote earth potential. Similar measurements to that described above are taken from the coating fault epicenter at ground level to remote earth at every coating fault and are used in calculating the coating fault severity. Operating instructions: Finding a defect: Adjust the meter a range switch to the 100mv range, and ensure that only one handle bias switch is ON adjusted to position 3. This is all that is necessary for normal surveying. Place the probes one in front of the other. Contact the soil with the probes approximately at 1.5 to 2meter spacing. Turn the bias control potentiometer to bring the needle of the meter onto the scale. Keep the needle on the meter scale the whole time the probes are in contact with the soil. Look for the meter needle to be flicking in response to the pulsed DC. Lift the probes srep out from the test point at which the signal strength was previously measured. Move forward 2 paces and contact the ground with the probes. Use the bias if necessary to bring the meter needle onto the scale. Look dor a needle deflection. If there is no deflection then step out another 2 paces and then bring the needle onto the scale with the bias control. If there is a deflection observes the needle to see which direction the coating fault lies. If you are unsure either change to a lower meter scale or move the probe forward along the pipeline. The meter needle points to the probe, which is nearest to the defect. The interrupter if OFF for longer than for what it is ON and when it is ON the current normally flows through the ground towards the defect. It is the size and direction of the needle flick or swing that you are interested in. it may be possible that the coating fault is small and lies behind you so correct identification of direction of the needle swing. If you observe a deflection lift the probe which is closest to the coating fault and move it 0.5meter towards the defect. Bring the second probe forward and place it where the first probe used to be keep moving forward in this manner. As you move towards the defect the amplitude of deflection will increase so there may be a need to change to a higher range required. When the coating fault is passed the needle deflection completely reverses and slowly decreases as you move away from the defect. Retrace the steps to the suspected coating fault position where the change in meter needle direction occurs. At the approximate null position with the probes at about 1,5 meters apart observe any meter deflection. If the deflection is from left to right move the left probe 15cm to the right hand probe. At the point of no deflection, the coating fault location lies midway between the two probe locations. Scratch a mark on the ground at the midway position. Turn through 90 degrees to work across the pipeline direction. Stand facing the mark in the ground and repeat the coating fault location process described above. At the new null position mark the midway position between the probes on the ground to cross the first mark. Recheck the first mark by turning back to the original position and checking for the null. Where the two lines cross is above the centre of the coating fault voltage gradient and is called the coating epicenter. As a final check that the location is correct, place one probe at the epicenter and the other about 1.5 meters away placed in turn at the four points of the compass. At each of the four locations the meter needle should indicate a direction towards the coating fault epicenter. If this is not the case then the epicenter has been incorrectly located or the coating fault location is at one end of a long crack in the pipe coating. Determining the Coating Fault Severity: Coating fault severity which is related to its geometric size although there are other influencing factors is determined from electrical measurements taken at the coating fault epicenter. The size/importance or severity of a coating fault titled %IR is calculated by expressing the over line to remote earth potential as a percentage of the actual pipe to remote earth potential (the signal amplitude) on the pipeline at the defect Once all information about a coating fault has been logged continue surveying along the pipeline route. A special but common type of voltage gradient encountered during the surveying has a long sausage shape generated by longitudinal crown cracking in coal tar, ruffling in tapes, and micro porosity in asphalt coatings or where many small coating faults occur in close proximity. Whilst this type of coating fault is often missed during CIPS or Pearson surveys, their presence can readily be recognized by DC voltage gradient technology because such coating fault have strong lateral voltage gradients. Coating fault size shape and location on the pipeline: A good indication of a coating fault size, shape and location around the circumference of a pipeline can be gained by plotting of the equipotential lines of the voltage gradient at a coating fault in the soil surface. Start by plotting at a plotting at a point equivalent to 30% of the over line to remote earth potential. Track the equipotential line by the nulling method around the coating fault epicenter all way back to the start point placing markers on the way. The line will indicate the size and shape of the coating fault. The distance from the epicenter to the pipe centre line as determined by a pipe locator will determine whether a coating fault is on the bottom, side or top of the pipeline but this is an awkward way of determining this. A small discrete coating fault on the top of the pipe will appear as a circular is potential shape. The same sized coating fault on the bottom of the pipe will appear as an ellipse, distorted to one side of the pipe center line. Because the effect the pipe itself has in distorting the isopotential lines from the pipe centre line, it is easier to determine the location of a coating fault around the circumference of a pipeline on large diameter pipelines than on the smaller diameter pipelines. Some examples of isopotential plots of coating faults of different shape on a pipeline are shown in figure An alternative way of determine the orientation of a coating fault is to carry out the four points of the compass readings at each location keeping the probe spacing the same for all four measurements. If the coating fault is on the top of the pipe all four readings will be of similar amplitude. If the two readings to the side are much larger than those taken down the length of the pipeline then the coating fault is on the bottom segment of the pipeline. If one side reading is larger than the other then the coating fault is on that side of the pipeline. Calculating the severity of coating faults: The relative severity of a coating fault is expressed by the term %IR, which is calculated using the following formula: Fault epicenter to remote earth * 100 Coating fault severity (%IR) = - Calculated pipe to remote earth OLRE*100 In short version, %IR = - P/RE Calculation of the pipe to remote earth potential is an important figure needed to calculate the severity importance (%IR) value for a defect. To be able to calculate the severity of defects it is necessary to know the distance of defects and the DCVG signal strengths at test posts either side of the sector being surveyed. The pipe to remote earth potential (P/RE) is calculated as follows P/RE = S1- dx(S1-S2) D2-D1 S1= signal at upstream test post in = 800mv S2= signal at downstream test post in = 300mv D1= distance of upstream test post =0m D2= distance of downstream test post=1000m dx= distance between upstream test post and defect = 400m the severity (% IR ) is calculated as over line to remote earth from the figure is 130milli volts pipe to remote earth calculated above in 12.0 from figure given then % IR 130 * 100 %IR = =21.7 600 Deciding Which Coating Fault To Excavate And Repair: The coating fault grading is 0-15%IR characterized as a small coating faults. Such coating faults can usually be left unrepaired provided the CP system of the pipeline is in good condition and there are not too many small coating faults in close proximity. 15-35%IR characterized as medium coating faults. These may need repair usually within normal maintenance activities 35-70%IR characterized as medium large coating faults. These faults need to be excavated for inspection and repair in order to fix what could be considered a significant coating fault. 70-100%IR characterized as large coating faults. These coating faults should be excavated early for inspection and repair. The characterizations of coating faults given above are only one input but a very important input to the excavation and repair decision. Other important factors are shape and method of coating failure, corrosion behavior, soil PH and resistivity, presence of hydrogen sulphide in the soil, operating temperature, age. Coating type, leak and metal loss history etc. DCVG data for on shore pipeline: SNO Chainage (Km) ON (-mv) OFF(-mv) Potential Swing(-mv) OLRE(mv) Signal Strength (mv) %IR Remarks 1 0+000 1650 1091 550 2 0+300 20 587.50 3.404

The Record Companies Decrease in Sales :: Music

The Record Companies' Decrease in Sales The music business is experiencing a recession where record sales are reaching all-time lows. All record companies have in the last few years experienced a considerable decrease in sales. Finding the cause or causes of this has naturally become a major concern for all of them. Some blame the recession in the West in general, but that can hardly explain why one industry is losing out so much more than others. Music today is less from the heart than it used to be only ten years ago. It is mostly a purely commercial product to be used up and thrown away. A lot of modern music has a short but intense life span. People are not prepared to pay as much for a 'disposable' product as they are for a 'reusable'. The hit song of the week is fed to us all through radio and TV so intensely that we need not buy the record. And when it is no longer broadcasted no one remembers it. Attempts to change this and promote more quality, depth and originality in music have not been very successful. The whole entertainment business is ruled by trends and, quality seems to have gone out of style To simply lower the price of a CD is a commonly suggested solution, naturally advocated by the buyers. But no business favors such a remedy. Not only since it reduces their income but also because it sends out the wrong signals to people. It gives the impression that the product is worth less and that the customers have been charged too much before. And if the price can drop by ten per cent this year people might expect it to drop another ten per cent next year. A better settlement could be enhancing the product and giving people more for their money. Thanks to modern technology there can be so much more included on a CD than just music. A computer with a CD-ROM drive, which is becoming quite common, allows us to read several different kinds of information off a CD. A short interview with the artist or 'behind the scenes' features can be included as so called 'Quicktime movies'. Lyric sheets, discographies, extensive biographies and even sheet music can also be added easily. Text files have such small memory requirements compared to sound that the Bible can be stored in less space than a normal length song! There have already been several Cds released which include a

Essay --

Emerging Technology and Graphic Design Research Paper Waianae High School Team Members: Catherine Cannon Marina Leota Advisor: Michael O’Connor Principal: Disa Hauge 85-251 Farrington Highway Waianae, HI 96792 TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary 2 Target Audiences and Technology 3 Social Media and Graphic Design 4 Reaching Target Audiences 6 References 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This research paper is about social media and mobile connectivity and its importance to graphic designers in the aspect of being able to reach growing demographics. Technology has helped expand businesses benefitting them in the long run. As technology advances, it not only appeals to a younger audience but an older audience as well. Social media is known as the most effective way to communicate with everyone. Within social networks, graphic designers are able to promote not only themselves but the business as a whole by creating eye catching images. Newer technology being released such as tablets or more advanced cell phones can also help graphic designers experiment with varying art styles and other ways of connecting with their target audience. Through both technology and social media, with its variety of online and mobile users, graphic designers are given a stepping stone to connecting with growing demographics and to expand their consumers. To reach their audience, a graphic designer must not showcase just their work, but their ability to communicate and relate as well. 2 TARGET AUDIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY Demographics connected to technology and social media are growing everyday, ranging in gender, race and age, thus making it all the more easier for businesses to connect, reach and earn clients. Growing businesses and freelance artists would surely benefit f... ...Popescu, Adam (2013, April 12). Just Who Uses Social Media? A Demographic Breakdown. Retrieved from http://mashable.com/2013/04/12/social-media-demographic-breakdown/. Date retrieved 2014, Feb 10. Repographics, Carolina (2013). The Importance of Graphic Design in Social Media. Retrieved from http://www.carolinarpg.com/raleigh-graphic-design-for-social-media/. Date retrieved 2014, Feb 10. Smith, Brianna (2013, May 10). Best Times to Post on Social Media (infographic). Retrieved from http://socialmediatoday.com/brianna5mith/1453951/best-times-post-social-mediainfographic. Date retrieved 2014, Feb 10. Widrich, Leo (2013, May 2). Social Media in 2013: User Demographics for Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest and Instagram. Retrieved from http://blog.bufferapp.com/social-media-in-2013- user-demographics-for-twitter-facebook-pinterest-and-instagram. Date retrieved 2014, Feb 10. 9

The Taco Bell Dog :: essays research papers

1 Oversize corn chip + 1 Undersized dog = Millions of dollars   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many people say that the US is the land of opportunity, but the latest money making opportunity has come from south of the border. Chihuahuas, Talking Chihuahuas. Taco Bell has struck a gold mine in its latest advertisement campaign involving a talking Chihuahua, fueling an instant craze for the little dogs, and all of their merchandise.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The actual filming for all of the commercials was shot in western LA using a simple white background. Four look alike dogs were filmed in many situations at many angles. Using simple verbal commands such as sit, stay, and lie the trainers instructed the dogs out of view of the cameras. The entire process of shooting all of the footage for all of the commercials took only four days. On the final day of the shoot, a party was thrown in honor of the soon to be stars. Each was served a specially made cake consisting of carob, Carrots, and decorated dog biscuits. Three of the pups refused to touch the cakes. The forth one ate a portion of his and proceeded to vomit on the set floor. The dogs were also presented with Custom leather jackets by one costume designers. Another crew member gave the dogs a large inflatable Godzilla figure. The dogs reportedly attempthed to sexually gratify themselves on the tail several times and then chewed the toes off.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After filming the footage was sent to an animation company in Texas. Using computers, the animators morphed frames to create the effect of the dogs talking. Backgrounds, many of which are not actually Taco Bell, but a little deli called Sals, were added along with music and voices. And thus a new sensation was born.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The overwhelming success of the campaign is not limited to combo meals and gorditas, The Chihuahuas image can be seen on every thing from hats to t-shirts to dashboard ornaments to Vases.

Frankenstein by Mary Shelly

In their chapter on ghosts in literature, Bennett and Royle propose that nineteenth century literature altered the widespread understanding of ghosts. The ghost now ‘move[d] into one's head. The ghost is internalised: it becomes a psychological symptom, and no longer a thing that goes bump in the night†¦ ‘ (p. 133). Frankenstein by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley certainly provides evidence for this argument that nineteenth century Gothic literature became more concerned with the haunted consciousness than the haunted house (Byron 2004: Stirling University). The tale like all Gothic works is concerned with the uncanny, and if we believed the popular representation of Frankenstein, we could be fooled into thinking that it is simply about a terrifying, grotesque monster. However, is this actually what Shelley's novel is about? By paying particular attention to chapter two in volume two of Frankenstein, and using Bennett and Royle's chapter on ghosts, I will consider to what extent Frankenstein can be described as a ghost story. Before we start to look at Frankenstein itself, we should first look at the context in which it was written. As is well known, Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein when travelling in Geneva with her husband Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron. In her preface to Frankenstein, Shelley tells the reader that ‘in the evenings we crowded around a blazing wood fire, and, occasionally amused ourselves with some German stories of ghosts†¦ ‘ She goes on to describe how ‘these tales excited us in a playful desire of imitation. [Percy Shelley, Lord Byron]†¦ and myself agreed to write each a story, founded on some supernatural occurrence' (Norton Anthology, p. 908). So before we have even read her tale, we know that she initially intended to write it as some form of ghost story. Did Shelley achieve her goal? Chapter two in volume two of Frankenstein does seem to provide evidence to the presence of the theme of the supernatural. This is the chapter in which Victor and his creature are reunited after Victor first ran away after bringing the creature to life because he was terrified by its horrific appearance. Prior to this, our only impression of the creature was very much a mysterious one; we knew him only by Victor's description of his hideous and deformed appearance. Now we get to ‘meet' him for ourselves, and our first impression may be that of shock; not because of his appearance (as of course we never really know what the creature looks like) but due to the eloquence with which he speaks. As Sparknotes summarise, ‘The monster's eloquent narration of events†¦ reveals his remarkable sensitivity and benevolence. ‘ The creature tells Victor of the pain and rejection he has had to suffer with great emotion; ‘All men hate the wretched; how then must I be hated, who am miserable beyond all living things! (Norton Anthology, p. 960). His expressive words show us that the creature is not a purely evil being, as Victor would have had us believe. The creature's appearance has an otherworldly attribute, simply because we never know and never will know what he actually looks like; we can only rely on Victor's and Walton's descriptions which may be biased, and so his appearance remains a secret. Nicholas Abraham ventures that ‘ghosts have to do with unspeakable secrets' (Bennett and Royle, p. 134). As we know, Frankenstein felt his secret of creating life was unspeakable to his family and friends – the only person he recounts his tale to is Walton (that the reader knows of anyway). On the other hand, Victor never constantly reiterates the creature's horrific appearance, and pays much less attention to the humane, sensitive side of the creature. This turns out to be a fatal and tragic mistake, as the creature's human characteristics turn out to be the most important; it is his humane side that becomes blackened by rejection of society, and causes the creature to kill Victor's family and friends and eventually, Victor himself. The way in which the creature appears before Victor in this chapter is also extremely eerie. He ‘bound[s] over the crevices in the ice' as an answer to Victor's call to the spirits. Victor pleads with them ‘Wandering spirits, if indeed ye wander, and do not rest in your narrow beds, allow me this faint happiness, or take me, as your companion, away from the joys of life' (Norton Anthology, p. 959). The fact that the creature's arrival comes when Victor is pleading for someone to carry him away from his worries by means of death could foreshadow who Victor's ‘saviour' will be. The creature also has a distinguishable effect on Victor when the two are reunited; he becomes the catalyst to cause Victor to become haunted only by his sheer animal hatred of the creature. As the creature approaches Victor, Victor describes how ‘anger and hatred had at first deprived me of utterance, and I recovered only to overwhelm him with words expressive of furious detestation and contempt' (Norton Anthology, p. 959). The creature has a ghostlike effect on Victor, as he causes him to become paralysed, not by fear however, but by his pure loathing for him. If we take this further, we could even venture to say that from the creature's animation right until Victor's death, the creature ‘initiates a haunting theme that persists throughout the novel-the sense that the monster is inescapable, ever present, liable to appear at any moment and wreak havoc' (Sparknotes). Victor constantly lives in fear from the appearance of the creature, and also fears that he will kill all his family and friends. The way in which Frankenstein is narrated also carries on this haunting theme. It is told through a series of multiple narratives, as if Shelley was trying to recreate the way in which scary stories are passed down through generations, and perhaps also how they change over time. A noteworthy example of the creature's haunting effect on Victor comes when the two are reunited on the glacier. Victor describes with horror the feeling that came over him as he ‘beheld the figure of a man†¦ advancing towards me with superhuman speed. ‘ He tells the reader that ‘I felt a faintness seize me; but I was quickly restored by the cold gale of the mountains. I perceived as the shape came nearer, (sight tremendous and abhorred! that it was the wretch whom I had created. I trembled with rage and horror†¦ ‘ (Norton Anthology, p. 959). Victor must have, on some level, expected a reunion with his creature at some point; he knew he could only run from him for so long. However, his guilt has haunted him from the creature's creation, and so it could be that the creature is simply the embodiment of all of Victor's guilt and remorse for acting like God. This could explain why he is overwhelmed with horror – not by the creature's appearance, but because now he has to face his guilt head on, which he has attempted to put out of his mind for so long. We should also observe that Victor says he was ‘restored by the cold gale of the mountains' (Norton Anthology, p. 959) when he feels faint. This is the chapter in which the theme of sublime nature becomes utterly important in regard to understanding Victor Frankenstein, his creature and their remarkable relationship (Sparknotes). The majestic scenery of nature affects Victor's moods, has the power to move him and remind him of good times and also bad times. In a striking example, he goes so far as to say that ‘these sublime and magnificent scenes afforded me the greatest consolation that I was capable of receiving' (Norton Anthology, p. 58). This comment may show that Victor takes greater comfort in God's creation, that is, nature, than his own family, to whom he has not told his awful secret, and thus a barrier has been created. Victor has chosen instead to isolate himself and take comfort from the inanimate and almost haunting scenes around him. The changing weather can also arouse in Victor his feelings of despondency. He remarks ‘†¦ the rain poured down in torrents, and thick mists hid the summits of the mountains. I rose early, but felt unusually melancholy. The rain depressed me; my old feelings recurred, and I was miserable' (Norton Anthology, p. 58). This could reveal that Victor's moods are ruled by some absent yet ever-present being – perhaps God. God is notable primarily by his distinct absence in the novel (Byron 2004: Stirling University). However, the way that Victor does not appear to have the power to control his own feelings could show us that he has lost some of his own life and vitality in creating the creature, and now leaves it up to the changing nature and weather to control his emotions. The place where Victor and his creature meet is also significant, as it first introduces the idea of the creature being Victor's doppelganger. The fact that they both meet at a rather random scene of beauty rather than an actual place could show that they are both isolate creatures, albeit that Victor is isolated because he chooses to be, and the creature because he has to hide from human eyes. The language that Victor uses indicates to the reader that he would prefer to be alone with his secret in nature than with other people. He uses phrases such as ‘solitary grandeur' and ‘terrifically desolate' (Norton Anthology, p. 958) to describe the scenes around him, and perhaps also his state of mind. The creature, like Victor, is affected by beautiful nature around him, and feels that ‘the desert mountains and dreary glaciers are my refuge,' (Norton Anthology, p. 960) which also reflects how Victor feels. The creature and Victor are both so at home in nature, which could stress that there is more to this relationship than meets the eye; are these two really so different? Many modern critics believe that the creature is Victor's doppelganger. In earlier Gothic literature, evil was generally located in an external source, but Frankenstein sees a turn inwards to a focus on the evil within ourselves (Byron 2004: Stirling University). Bennett and Royle propose that ‘conflicting senses of the word ‘ghost' suggest ghosts are both exterior and central to our sense of the human' (p. 132). The creature in Frankenstein is the embodiment of this confusion. While he is physically exterior, he also pervades Victor's consciousness. It has to be remembered that it was Victor who created the creature, and so perhaps the creature is Victor's doppelganger, as he is ‘the embodiment of an internal and irreparable division in the human psyche' (Byron 2004: Stirling University). It is possible to see that the gaps between Frankenstein and his creature are not as wide as we may have initially believed. However, while I do believe that Frankenstein is a ghost story to a very large extent, I do not think one could describe the tale of Frankenstein without, at some point, mentioning the genre of science fiction. While at once being Gothic and having the style of the German ghost stories that Shelley and her companions were reading on their travels, the story would have much less of an impact if it were not for the role that science plays in the book. Victor becomes obsessed by the secret of life in the book, and it is he who creates the ‘ghost' in the story, so it is not simply a case of the bogey man in Frankenstein. The creature challenges our way of thinking about ghosts because he was brought to life made of dead parts, as if life can spring from death with the use of science. So, while I would argue that the tale is most definitely a ghost story, I do not think that Frankenstein would have become such a literary classic if Shelly had not chosen to use the role of science to show us what can happen if we mere mortals meddle too much with God's prerogative.